"Where Creativity Comes From"

This article reports on studies that have indicated that creativity and inventiveness may not be mere products of need, but more often derive from the privilege of opportunity.

The article describes how an adage persists that creativity and inventiveness, distinctions of "intelligent" primates, are born of necessity: an individual, family, or tribe suffers environmental hardship or scarcity, and they solve the problem creatively. It seems logical that an animal or person has to undergo challenges to be innovative, or that survival depends on thinking "outside of the box." However, according to the article, recent studies suggest the opposite is true: times of hardship actually prevent innovation, and spans of leisure, comfort, and even captivity spur creativity.  For example, in a 2015 study published in the American Journal of Primatology, primatologist Carel van Schack compared wild and captive orangutans' responses to a new object, a small platform in the shape of an orangutan nest. Researchers found that the captive orangutans were curious about the object and approached it, but the wild ones were scared of it. This is tied to innovation because animals need to be willing to explore strange objects or situation in order for change to happen.

The article goes on to explain how encouraging innovation in children relies on cultural and environmental factors. For example, in a 2011, researchers gave a group of British five-year olds straight but flexible pipe cleaners and asked them to retrieve buckets that were out of reach. The task proved to be really hard for the children. However, in a later study, the experiment was put under different conditions. The study was done at the Children's Museum of Pittsburgh, where the children were being encouraged to play and explore. This time, the children did significantly better. This study shows how an environment-based approach to invention and the exchange of knowledge stimulates more creativity.

The research in this article is important to society because it suggests we need to change the way we encourage problem-solving and creativity. It reminds me to seek out peace amidst a busy life of work and education, to slow down a little more often and let my brain explore new realms of creativity. I think we could all be more motivated to improve our lives if we just allowed ourselves a little more wiggle room and encouragement to explore our great capacity for creativity.

-Porter

This is so cool, this is one of the topics that I want to study for my major! It is amazing that plants have the ability to change temperature enough for someone who is holding it to notice. This makes a lot of sense though, that plants would need to regulate their temperature in relation to the environment around them. Maybe there is an optimal temperature for photosynthesis to take place. BC

I really thought that the brain/memory post was interesting. It reminded me of learning about false memories in my psychology class. Do they think that this forgetting is tied to false memories? How can we trust any of our memories?  BC

Genetic Engineering of Tomato Plants

I chose an article about genetic engineering because it has always been a topic that has interested me. I wrote a 30 page paper on this subject in one of my English classes a few semesters ago, and I really enjoyed learning about the benefits that come from genetic modification. This article talks about the genetic modification of tomato plants, and about a breakthrough that scientist have made in their production.

In this article, it discusses a breakthrough that allows scientists to cut the time required to modify the genes of tomotoes by six weeks. Originally, this process involves using the DNA from the original tomato plant, modifying them, and then reinserting them to create a new plant. This process is now being sped up significantly. The whole process that once took 17 weeks, is now taking 11. This means that through genetic modification, the crop yield of these tomatoes is also significantly increased.

Tomotoes however are just the beginning. As soon as this new process is perfected, it can be applied to other crops as well. This means that many of the food shortage problems that the world is dealing with could be solved. Raising crops continues to become an easier process, and discoveries like these are the reason why it is happening.

Understanding How Ionizing Radiation Causes Cancer

For many years, we have known that ionizing radiation, such as X-rays and gamma rays, can cause cancer, however, researchers have never known how many tumors have been caused by radiation, or how this damage occurs. Through a study done by researchers from the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, we can now identify two patterns of damage to DNA done by ionizing radiation. These patterns are known as mutational signatures. A mutational signature is the molecular fingerprint left by DNA damage on the genome of a cancer cell.  By studying the mutational signatures in tumors caused by  radiation, and spontaneously formed tumors, the researchers from the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute were able to note two mutational signatures that were shown in tumors caused by radiation. These mutational signatures were found to be independent of cancer type, and helped explain how ionizing radiation damages DNA.

The first mutational signature is a deletion, where small numbers of DNA bases are cut out. The second mutational signature is a balanced inversion, where the DNA is cut in two places, and the middle piece spins around and reconnects in the opposite direction. This type of damage does not occur naturally in the body, however, high-energy radiation can cause enough DNA breaks at the same time to make it possible. Clinician researcher, Dr. Sam Behjati, did mention that there are probably more types of mutational damage, caused by radiation, than the two noted by the Welcome Trust Sanger Institute group, but these two specific examples give researchers a great basis for understanding what is happening to DNA during radiation, and how this can cause cancer.

This information was found in an article, from BiologyNews.net, titled, Study reveals how ionising radiation damages DNA and causes cancer. I chose this article, because I found it to be very interesting. I didn’t realize that before this study, researchers did not know how ionizing radiation causes cancer, and I think this is a very important step for the treatment and prevention of cancer. As mentioned in the article, by understanding exactly how tumors are being caused by radiation, we can come up with ways to efficiently treat these types of tumors.

-Mindy C.

Continuing Jacques Cousteau's Work

A team of archiologists (and hard core divers) discovered the remains of a 2,000 year-old skeleton in a shipwreck near the Greek island of Antikythera.  The ship is guessed to have been lost at sea around 65BC.  The remains and other artifacts brought up on this expedition, however, were not the first to be discovered.  In 1900, a group of Greek sponge divers discovered the wreck and started to collect artifacts from the site, and in the 1970's Jacques Cousteau and his team unearthed human remains.  One of the most famous artifacts discovered was the Antikythera Mechanism.  A device that could track planetary movement and is considered to be one of the earliest computers in the world.  This collection marks the first time since the DNA technology was accessible that a specimen has been available.

From the remains, which appear to be that of a 20-ish year old male, scientists hope to discover where he was from and even what he looked like.  He has been nicknamed Pamphilos, after a name found scratched into a wine cup in the wreckage.

Interestingly, this ship was said to be a merchant ship, and was close to the shore when it sank.  Any merchants on the ship would have been on deck and had a relatively good chance of escaping to shore.  Those below deck, or worse, shackled below deck would have no chance to escape.  Some of the bone fragments appear to be red in color and scientists say these are iron oxides.  Some yet unidentified corroded iron objects were found scattered around the bones, giving this discovery a grisly undertone.  

Time is not on the side of the remains and artifacts since being underwater for 2,000 years, the surface environment can cause them to disintegrate rapidly. Permission is needed from the Grecian government before any DNA testing can be done on the remains.  DNA results will take about a month to yield any results. 

Most divers, myself included, get overly excited to even find golf balls and old sunglasses when we dive. This must have been a very exciting day!

Amanda Wardell

External Combustion—Majority of U.S. Motorists Admit to Venting Road Rage

Road Rage has become a part of our daily driving lives, whether we are the aggressors or whether we are the recipients of those who outwardly express their frustration. According to a survey conducted by the AAA Traffic Safety Foundation, "nearly 80 percent of U.S. drivers say they committed at least one antisocial act on the road in the past year." Christine Wickens, a University of Toronto psychologist, uses the terms driver violence and driver aggression. She states that men are much more likely to be involved in driver violence than women; three times more likely, according to the AAA study. Men are not, however, much more likely to be involved in driver aggression than women. When asked about tailgating, "46.1 percent of the women [and 55.5 percent of men] admitted to the practice."

There were multiple reasons given in the article as underlying causes to driver violence and driver aggression. The one that I found to be the most convincing was the contrast between social cues in public both inside and outside our car. Jerry Deffenbacher, a psychologist at Colorado State University, explains that when we are in public, or outside our car for the sake of the contrast, there are social cues we follow. However, when we are "sitting in our car, listening to our music or talking with a member of our family," we tend to disregard the fact that we are still in public, along with the corresponding social cues, due to everything around us that is ours.

The article continues on by giving solutions in order to "Stop the Madness." Jeff Flynn, a spokesperson for the New Jersey State Police, says that the best way to improve is to "not engage with a road rage driver. Don't provoke them, don't feed the anger." Some external solutions that were given in the article were "identifying and modifying poorly designed intersections, [and] badly coordinated traffic signals."

There is nothing more frustrating for me, especially if I'm rushing to get somewhere, than getting to an intersection and not making it through, even when every other car seems to make it through. And I'm not talking about pulling up to a light while it's turning yellow, I'm talking about that one light that everyone turns at, but there is no turn light, so the line gets backed up forever. Or the intersection where the green light is three seconds long, and the red light is twenty minutes long. Can you tell I display characteristics of this driver aggression that Wickens explained?

I found this article very interesting because I am one of the millions of people that have displayed signs of road rage. I can actually look back on today and see a couple of instances where I was not only the one who was in the line of some else's road rage (this seems to happen a lot here in Utah), but I also was the one who participated in road rage.

A Cure for the Ebola Virus: The Modern Day Trojan Horse

Just recently, a report was published giving hope and closure to many. We all remember just years ago when the Ebola Virus was an overwhelming threat and scare to one and all. This careless virus, causing internal bleeding and organ failure, claimed over 11,000 deaths and 29,000 infected victims in it's most dominant massacre during 2014-2015. It seemed a looming death, with no cure. However, researchers believe they have found a way to stop the Ebola Virus dead in it's own tracks. The classic Trojan Horse.

The Ebola Virus is a sneaky, and clever virus. In order to actually infect us and multiply, they must attach to a host cell. They can do so by entering a cell's lysosome. Once inside, they use the material in the lysosome to burst free, and enter into the cell's cytoplasm, where they can begin to infect and to multiply. By connecting with the NPC1 (Niemann-Pick C1), the Ebola Virus now has control, and can direct the lysosome using it's RNA to break into the cytoplasm.

Because the lysosome are invisible to the immune system, traditional antibodies wouldn't work. For this reason, Dr. Chandran, Dr. Dye, and Jonathan R Lai, devised a clever "Trojan Horse" to get the Ebola Virus to carry it's own destruction into the cell with him. To do this, they created two different antibodies; one to neutralize the virus itself, and the other to target the NPC1. Both of the antibodies contain FVM09, which allows for the two antibodies to ride along side the virus into the lysosome. Once inside, the antibodies are set free, and get to work. One goes after the virus, which is like a key, while the other goes for the NCP1, which is like the lock. With both parts being attacked, it makes it impossible for the Ebola Virus to actually attach to the lysosome, and break free into the cytoplasm.

This was tested as scientists injected mice with lethal injections of the virus, in all of it's forms. They waited two days, until finally checking back in on the mice. Unfortunately, the antibody couldn't attach to the NCP1, since the NCP1 in mice differs from in humans. The next step will be to test the idea on non-human primates. (Much closer in structure to humans than mice.)

I really like this article, because in the years 2014-2015, I was living in a different country that was infected greatly with this virus. It's interesting to me that through the biological breakdown of each cell, we can identify what interacts with what, and what we can do to stop that. Biology is so relevant in society, simply because it is the study of life. It makes us, and everything that is, what they are.

-C.W.

What Happens in the Brain When We Misremember

Human memories are a blend of personal experiences and our knowledge of the world around us. They aren’t necessarily a record of exactly what has happened. Memories can be unreliable, new experiences mixing with the old ones. At times, faulty memories have had quite negative consequences, such as eyewitness testimony in court. Psychologists have been working to uncover what contributes to misremembering.

Decades ago, a procedure known as the DRM task was developed to study false memories. This task is a psychological experiment in which participants are given a list of words that are related to a “lure” word, which is not present. After some time passes, participants are asked to remember what words they were given. Many recall seeing the lure word even though it was absent. This effect contributes to the idea of gist memory; we store overall ideas in our minds rather than remembering on an individual basis.

Brain-imaging studies have allowed us to see where certain memories are stored. Sounds are stored in the auditory cortex, images in the visual cortex, and so on. Researchers believe that there is a certain area of our brain, known as the “hub”, which is able to see all memories at once. The hub can discern similarities among objects, even if they do not look or sound similar, such as an ostrich and hummingbird.

Researchers have theorized that our brain’s ability to see similarity in meaning causes an overlapping in patterns of brain activity. This overlapping then leads to faulty memories. No one has known exactly where this overlapping occurs until recently. Cognitive neuroscientist, Martin Chadwick, and his team used brain scanning while repeating the DRM experiment. From the scans, they were able to see that the frontal part of the brain’s anterior temporal lobe (ATL) responded in all participants during this study. Chadwick found that while such brain overlapping can lead to some unreliable memories, its organizational method allows us to remember things better.

By striving to understanding how the brain record memories, we can work to resolve legal issues associated with eyewitness testimonies. Knowledge of this can also further intelligent machine development. Our minds use memory of past experiences to adapt to new situations, allowing us to predict consequences and make appropriate decisions. Computer programs currently do only what you specifically tell them. By learning how the mind adjusts, an adaptive machine could someday be developed.

I chose this article because everyone, including me, misremembers things at times. I simply wanted to know the reason behind why that is. There may be a way to improve memory by understanding the way events are recorded. This could lead to finding a method to reduce effects caused by diseases associated with memory deterioration, such as Alzheimer’s.

The idea of intelligent machinery also intrigued me. If a machine was capable of “learning” and adapting to new situations, it could perform all sorts of tasks without needing to be specifically told to do so. However, human minds are very complex, and I am unsure of how higher thinking could be replicated by a machine.

I learned that while our minds are able to connect at a higher level, it isn’t always accurate, and that’s not necessarily a bad thing. While overlapping brain patterns may result in some false memories, this process allows us to accurately retain much of our everyday experiences. The ability to make higher-level connections enables us to learn and grow. We just need to be aware of false memory, so that we are more cautious when dealing with certain situations, such as eyewitness testimony.

-Ashley B.

Targeting the right location; a look at the brains anatomical circuit

Sleep is a fact of life; and without it, animals (including humans) cannot survive. Yet, millions of Americans; and quite frankly millions world-wide, have trouble sleeping. Multi-billions of dollars are spent every year in the pharmaceutical market for insomnia alone. This has led to vast amounts of research on sleep. Recently, the scientists at Stanford Universities School of Medicine believe they have stumbled upon something. The scientists wanted to test what effect suppressing and exciting the reward-system of the brain would have on the sleep-wake cycle. They knew that the ventral tegmental area, or VTA, of the brain is home to the "origin of numerous dopamine-secreting nerve fibers". So, they decided to single out this portion of the brain to suppress and excite these dopamine-secreting nerves; and monitor this on mice. Their results were exciting.

They ran various tests to watch how the mice's behavior would change when the VTA was suppressed, excited and as a control; left alone. They discovered that suppressing the VTA would cause the mice to sleep much more often. In fact; they would sleep through numerous events that would cause the un-aided mice to immediately wake-up. These events included food, female mice, and even fox urine; which would normally induce fear and panic in the mice.Alternatively; the VTA excited mice would ignore their normal sleep cycles and remain awake for long periods of time. It would even awaken mice immediately if the VTA was excited during sleep.

This exciting discovery could lead to a future in pharmaceutical drugs that would target specific areas of the brain to be suppressed or shut down to aid in sleep. Currently, many sleep-aid drugs shut down the brain in it's entirety; which can have many adverse side-affects. Also, the article stated that it could help in the development of many targeted drugs that could aid in neurological conditions; such as schizophrenia and bi-polar.

I chose this article because it is very exciting news for me. I have been affected by insomnia, restless leg syndrome, and a light form of narcolepsy for much of my life. To say I struggle to sleep and rest at night would be a great understatement. To hear that new research has been made and new and better drugs could be formulated in the future using this research is such exciting news. I hate prescription drugs and have avoided them my adult life. The side-affects were too much. It was great to learn that sleep drugs are non-target and shut down the whole brain; which is why they make you so groggy and light-headed in the morning. I learned that we still have a lot to learn when it comes to mapping out the "circuit" of the brain, but that science is making steps to learn more about it. This is the kind of research that would help millions world-wide; and the type of research I hope to take part in as a career in life.

Joseph Sneddon
Bio 1610-008

Plants with the ability to Thermoregulate

         Some plants were found to produce heat when they bloom. A few species even regulating their temperature as if they were warm blooded mammals. Roger Seymour explains that at a party he was handed a flower that was warm and over the course of the party grew even hotter than the human body! After some research it was discovered that some plants could produce as much heat as birds and insects in flight (the greatest heat producers). A few of the plants could even alter their heat production, coordinating their temperature with air temperature. Examining Philodendron selloum showed the plant reaching 100 degrees Fahrenheit in a 39 degree environment, and reaching a peak of 115 degrees in a tropical temperature of 102 degrees. This reveals that the Philodendron s. was adjusting it's heat production to maintain warmth in cold temperatures, and prevent overheating in hot temperatures. Proving that they do more then produce heat, but have the ability to thermoregulate their temperature. What other reasons do plants thermoregulate? Some researchers assume it is to get rid of scents that attract insects; however, this could be accomplished from heating alone, not thermoregulation. In some plants thermoregulating appeared to ensure reproduction by making a warm environment for insects. These insects would not have to expend extra energy to remain warm if they contributed to pollination in the heated flowers. A second explanation could be that the flower itself may need a constant temperature for development of their reproductive system. Or perhaps to prevent damage to sensitive parts that could be harmed in an uncontrolled environment.
       
         So how do plants generate heat in the first place? I learned that for a plant to generate heat, they activate two biochemical pathways in mitochondria, and one of these pathways is always found present in heat-producing plants. Both pathways use nutrients and oxygen to manufacture ATP, which can be broken apart to provide energy or produce heat. A complete flower head of the Philodendron selloum was studied, it appeared that it had a sort of thermostat to regulate heat. In male florets an activation of enzymes involved in heat generation resulted in an increase in heat production. Reversely, an inhibition of enzymes involved in heat generation resulted in a decrease in heat production. Electron micropsy also showed that their tissues had fat droplets and many mitochondria. This is similar to brown fat, a heat producing tissue in mammals.

        I thought this article was super interesting because it shows that plants have amazing capabilities. There is so many new things that can be discovered about plants because the whole plant kingdom is so vast and mysterious. Some of those heat producing plants have been reported to melt snow surrounding them! That is incredible, I feel like people misjudge how much plants can teach us, not to mention the roll they play in our survival. I believe this article shows the public that plants are more amazing then we give them credit for. Not only are they able to create their own food, create our food, and supply us with oxygen; they are able to regulate their own temperatures as well!
Summer R.

Kacey Farnsworth

Biology 1610

A new species of pterosaur was discovered in Chubut Province, (Patagonia, Argentina). The scientists are very excited because this specimen’s cranial remains were in very very good condition, this provided new information on the origin, tempo and evolution of the species and the entire Pterosaur group. The new species was named Allkauren Koi meaning ancient brain, in native Tehuelche. The dinosaur was dated back to the Early Jurassic, unlike many of the other species in the Pterosaur group which date to the Mesozoic Era. Many from this group were equipped with pneumatic bones and elongated digits to support wing membranes. But very little is known about their neuroanatomy, until now there was almost no information on the inner ear or cranial endocast. This Allkauren Koi shows intermediate brain evolution of Pterosaurs and adaption to flying, meaning there were others from this group before and after this species time.

I thought this article was interesting because many times we forget we haven’t discovered everything in the world. It is humbling to be reminded that we haven’t seen everything in the world or found even the beginning to some mysteries. I have always been fascinated by dinosaurs and paleontology. Some of the things we have learned from bones is amazing, who would have known we could learn so much from a hunk of rock.

Discovery of potential vaccine for 'flesh eating' bacteria

In the article "Biochemists' discovery could lead to vaccine against 'flesh eating' bacteria," a group of biochemists were able to find a potential marker to use for vaccination. A group of researchers lead by Partho Ghosh of UC San Diego, were able to find a hidden pattern in the way Necrotizing Fasciitis (also known as A Strep or 'flesh eating' bacteria) varies its M Protein, the outer protein coat of this disease. The protein is labeled as having hyper variability, due to the many different strains each having a different protein that manifests, labeled as the M Protein. This is an obvious problem for vaccine makers, because it makes it nearly impossible to create a vaccine that is effective against all of the various strains.
The researchers found that a human protein, C4BP, was recruited to the surface of the bacteria by many different protein types. The bacteria does this to try and slow down the immune systems response by using this protein as camouflage. If scientists can stop the M Proteins from interacting with C4BP and take advantage of the bacteria bringing C4BP to the surface, it could pave the way to finding a vaccine. By finding a way to train antibodies to recognize multiple M Proteins like C4BP does, a vaccine could potentially be produced.
I learned a lot about the importance of proteins in the development of vaccines from reading this article. It was fascinating to me that a bacteria could use a human protein as protection against the immune system and do so with great effect. I was particularly interested in this topic because I had the opportunity this summer to go on a medical mission to Tonga and we saw Necrotizing Fasciitis while we where there. It was sad to see some of the suffering that was caused by this bacteria. Too often we think of society as where we live, but society as a whole is a world wide affair. Just because we don't see A Strep all that often in the US doesn't mean that it isn't a problem for other parts of society. the fact that this bacteria could be potentially eradicated via vaccine is a very good thing for society.

Shark's linked to Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's Disease a degenerative disease that targets the brain and is most common in more elderly people. It is a form of Dementia and its most common and known side effect is severe memory lose. Alzheimer's can lead to much heartache in a family and in the caregivers. Eventually those suffering from Alzheimer's will need around the clock supervision. This disease is a terrible disease that can take many away from their families and their lives.
In a recent study, a link has been found between Alzheimer's and sharks. From the University of Miami, scientists have found a neurotoxin that is connected with degenerative diseases. BMAA is a toxin found in over ten species of sharks in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Along with BMAA, is high amounts of Mercury found in sharks. Together these two toxins pose as a health risk to humans. You would think that it would be easy to get the word out but, in many Asian cultures and countries sharks are eaten as a delicacy. This is a main cause in the near extinctions of many shark species, and breaking this culture is going to take time and more then just a couple people listening. Scientist recommend strongly that the practise of eating sharks can be a simple fix to part of the growing problem of Alzheimer's Disease.
In my family my Grandpa has been diagnosed with Alzheimer's. Although you never really know if this is a correct diagnoses until brain samples are taken, which can't happen until death, it hits home for me. This article gave a possible cause to Alzheimer's and many in this world could benefit down the line by staying away from eating shark. If they avoid shark they might be able to avoid having the heart breaking news that someone in their family has be diagnosed with Alzheimer's Disease. This is only a link and not a cure but hopefully someone can learn from this new data and save themselves and family members from the associated pain.

-K.M.

"Blood Left at Crime Scene can Incriminate Criminals Age."

"Blood Left at Crime Scene can Incriminate Criminals Age."

             This article talkes about forensic science and fingerprints. There is a lot of time and cost included in DNA testing, and so it is not often used in cases. A new study is trying out a test to measure the levels of a certain enzyme (ALP) in the blood. 

            The ALP enzyme is used for bone growth and is less prevalent as you grow older. Testing the amounts of ALP in the criminals blood, you could hypothetically calculate their approximate age. There are certain factors that could ruin this test such as; health of the criminal, bone disorders, etc. 

This experiment was on a very small scale, and is not as accurate as regular DNA testing, but it also takes a lot less time. This testing would be used along with regular DNA testing to further prove the results and find the truth. 

            Other enzymes are suspected to be able to tell the gender of the criminal, but more testing and experimenting must be done on this. The two different enzymes are; creatine kinase, and alanine transaminase. This may lead to the testing for more specific enzymes that can tell us more about the criminal. 

            I thought that this article was very interesting-that they can use the amount of an enzyme in the blood to determine the approximate age of an individual. It is amazing to me how different all humans are in personality and such, but we are all so similar in the biology of things. I think that this added testing measure is a really good thing, and could eventually lead to more substantial, ways of furthering forensic science. 

 -- B.C.

Cell enzymes alerting the body to invading bacteria

The Biomedical investigators at Cedars-Sinai have recently identified an enzyme in human cells that is doing more than one job or “double duty” as they call it. The enzyme they researched was hexokinase this is a metabolic enzyme that helps cells use glucose as a substrate to produce glucose-6-phosphate. This reaction is used to produce energy and all cells have this enzyme. Hexokinase is not a protein that is specific to the immune system but has been found to work not only in metabolism but immunity as well.

The immune system is made up of two areas of defense, the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. The innate immune is the bodies first area of defense and is immediate. It kills, eats, and degrades microbes it will also cause inflammation which helps to limit the extent of damage from the bacteria. The inflammation that is causes by the innate immune system also initiates the adaptive immune system. The adaptive immune system produces antibodies to protect us from the same bacteria invading our bodies at a later time.

They used cells from lab mice to do their research finding that the hexokinase binds to the peptidoglycan that surrounds the plasma membrane in the cell walls of most bacteria. This caused an activation of the protein complexes that directed a strong inflammatory response toward the cells. With further research they found that the same process happens in human cells. With this discovery they think this could lead to explanation as to why people with Obesity, Type 2 diabetes, and Coronary Artery Diseases usually also have chronic inflammation.

            This is an interesting article because learning how the body can work in more than one way is fascinating to me. We learn more and more everyday about the body systems and how they interact with each other. I chose this paper over a few others that I had read because I found this very informative and I learned something new that I didn’t know anything about. I have a friend that was over weight for many years, he always complained of his joints aching and being sore. I can see how the soreness and swelling he experienced could have possibly been caused by chronic inflammation due to the way hexokinase has been found to react by interrupting the metabolic process and causing inflammation. No one is to say this is what it was but there is a possibility. -DB

Zika virus causes microscopically

The Zika Virus has been all over the news lately and for good reason. The virus is very dangerous to pregnant females and fetuses. There have been several cases  reported here in the United States. Zika affects the fetus of pregnant women by causing them to have abnormally small brains, a condition called, microcephaly.

I have heard a lot about this virus in the media and I was aware that it has been spreading around the US, but I never thought about the mechanisms the Zika virus used to damage fetuses brains. A team of scientists at Yale University has discovered how this happens. Knowing the little amount of biology that I do made understanding the virus quite simple. 

When a fetus is exposed to the virus it starts to attack the stem cells in the brain. The stem cells do not receive the specific protein, TBK1, which is responsible for cell division in the mitochondria. The protein is altered and causes brain cells to stop development and die off. This is because the mitochondria is all of the brain cells main supply of energy and cell regulation. The result of this process is a smaller brain in the fetus. Scientists are now developing drugs that will help prevent these effects in the fetus by allowing TBK1 to remain in the process of the cell division while allowing the mitochondria to be functional.

I chose this article because I was curious to know more about Zika for myself and what scientists and researchers are doing now to help prevent the spread of it. This article explains that if a single protein malfunctions in development it can significantly alter the biology of a being. I think that it is very important for people in society to know what risks are involved with the Zika virus and that there are still tests to be done to completely understand it. I believe knowing about the virus is the first step to ending the spread of it. 

-SN